Justification
When I began writing this, I only intended to cover the main
points of Calvinism—sovereignty, sin, election, and perseverance. As I investigated
Arminian theology, however, I found so many discrepancies between basic
scriptural truths and Arminianism that I had to expand my original outline. When
God justifies us, he forgives us and declares us righteous. Wesleyans
believe that God only forgives us in justification but he does not declare
anyone righteous. Wesleyans believe that God requires us to achieve righteousness
to gain our redemption. Finney believed that no one is justified and only a
life of perfect holiness will redeem us. Most Arminians believe that, once
justified, a believer may forfeit this forgiveness and perish eternally. This
is basically the same as not being justified at all. Arminians believe in
salvation by works.
If we are not completely justified by Christ’s work and God
requires some kind of righteousness on our part, whether we do this by his
Spirit or not, he saves us by our works. If we can lose our salvation, then our
salvation depends on our works. Whether some sin committed or some
righteousness omitted, salvation depends on us, and therefore on our works. If
we lose our salvation through some lack of faith, this still amounts to a salvation
that depends on something we do, or something we have, or some righteousness in
us, and therefore we lose our salvation by our sin, and therefore our salvation
depends on our righteousness and not Christ’s death. If anyone believes
they save themselves by their righteousness, if any church teaches that
believers lose their salvation, then they have abandoned the entire message of
the Gospel. Thomas Watson said—
Justification is the very hinge and pillar of Christianity. An error about justification is dangerous, like a defect in a foundation. Justification by Christ is a spring of the water of life. To have the poison of corrupt doctrine into this spring is damnable.[1]
We can easily see why Arminians err this way. If a man has
free will, whether given by God or not, then he is not a sinner, and he can
save himself by his works. If we trust in free will, we trust in our ability,
and we do not trust in God to redeem us. Arminians also fear justification
because they believe it leads to unrestrained sin. They do not trust the Holy
Spirit to work in the heart of a believer to remove his sin and lead him every
day to Christ.
Partial Justification
John Wesley believed that God forgives our sin yet he does
not declare us righteous. “The plain scriptural notion of justification is
pardon, the forgiveness of sins,” he says.[2] God
forgives us through the sacrifice made by Christ. Wesley leaves some ambiguity
in the discussion, however, as he repeatedly says “past sins” when referring to
forgiveness, as if God requires righteousness from us as a condition of our continued
justification.
[Justification] is that act of God the Father, hereby, for the sake of the propitiation made by the blood of his Son, he ‘showeth forth his righteousness (or mercy) by the remission of the sins that are past.’”
To him that is justified or forgiven, God ‘will not impute sin’ to his condemnation…His sins, all his past sins, in thought, word, and deed, are covered, are blotted out.
‘Thou shalt be saved’ from condemnation, from the guilt and punishment of thy former sins, and shall have the power to serve God in true holiness all the remaining days of thy life.[3]
Wesley did not believe that God completely justifies us. He
adds a second condition to justification in “The Righteousness of Faith” when
he says, “By the ‘righteousness which is of faith’ is meant, that condition of
justification (and in consequence, of present and final salvation, if we endure
therein unto the end.” We only remain justified and are “finally” saved if we
endure to the end. In Wesley’s mind, we remain justified if we persevere as
Christians until death. God saves us if we do not fall away. In another sermon,
Wesley describes God’s salvation. “Ye are saved from sin,” he says, “from the
guilt of all past sin,” and “from the fear, though not from the possibility,
of falling away from the grace of God, and coming short of the great and
precious promises.”[4]
I had to read this more than once. Wesley says that God
saves us from the fear but not the possibility of falling away. Why do we not
fear falling away when we face the possibility of it? This is complete
nonsense. If we can fall away, we will fear falling away.
Elsewhere Wesley says that God condemns us if we do not live righteously. In
“The First Fruits of the Spirit,” Wesley says, “There is no condemnation on
account of [the believer’s] past sins,” and “They are not condemned for any
present sins, for now transgressing the commandments of God. For they do not
transgress them.”[5] He continues, “So long as ‘he
keepeth himself’ herein, ‘that wicked one toucheth him not.’” God does not
condemn the believer because the believer does not sin. Read his words
in “Salvation by Faith”:
He that is born of God by faith sinneth not by any habitual
sin, nor by any willful sin, nor by any sinful desire. ‘He that is born of God
doth not commit sin,’ and though he cannot say he hath not sinned, yet now ‘he
sinneth not.’[6]
So long as we live in holiness and righteousness, God does
not condemn us. Wesley says that the Law condemns only those who break it,
therefore God condemns us when we transgress his law.
Now it is evident, he is not condemned for the sins which he
doth not commit at all. They, therefore, who are thus “led by the Spirit, are
not under the law” (Gal. 5:18): not under the curse or condemnation of it; for
it condemns none but those who break it. Thus, that law of God, “Thou shalt not
steal,” condemns none but those who do steal. Thus, “Remember the Sabbath-day to
keep it holy,” condemns those only who do not keep it holy.[7]
Wesley uses verses from two separate contexts to show that
God does not justify us unless we fulfill two conditions: faith and
righteousness. In other words, God only accepts us if we are righteous. Faith
is the easy part; now, just go and be righteous! God justifies us by faith, and
then we maintain our justification by living righteously. At no time does God
either declare us consider us righteous, just forgiven. Keep in mind,
forgiveness wipes the slate clean, while righteousness writes obedience on this
proverbial slate. We need both for complete redemption. Wesley believes that God
does not declare us righteous because we are not righteous. Justification does
not make us actually righteous nor does God declare us righteous. He says,
“[Justification] is not the being made actually just and righteous. This is
‘sanctification.’”[8] He continues
Least of all does justification imply that God is deceived in those whom he justified; that he thinks them to be what, in fact, they are not; that he accounts them to be otherwise than they are. [He does not] believe us righteous when we are unrighteous.[9]
God never declares us righteous. We are justified if we
believe and if we persevere in a righteous life till death. We earn our
salvation. Wesley even quotes Paul’s words and denies that Paul means what he
literally says. In Romans 4, Paul tells us that God “credited” Abraham’s faith
as righteousness. He repeats this five times while using different forms
of the verb “credit” eleven times, yet Wesley insists that God does not declare
us righteous, only forgiven.
The very moment God giveth faith to the “ungodly” that “worketh not,” that “faith is counted to him for righteousness.” … But “faith is imputed to him for righteousness,” the very moment that he believeth. Not that God (as was observed before) thinketh him to be what he is not.[10]
Wesley says that God “imputes” Christ’s righteousness to us,
but while some take this to mean that God declares us as righteous as Christ,
Wesley understands this to mean we are merely forgiven. Wesley frequently
speaks of God imputing Christ’s righteousness to us and he finally explains his
meaning. He says, “All believers are forgiven and accepted, not for the sake of
anything in them, or of anything that ever was, that is, or ever can be done by
them, but wholly and solely for the sake of what Christ hath done and suffered
for them.”[11] Wesley does not believe that
God has imputed Christ’s righteousness to our account as if to declare us
righteous because he believes God only forgives our past sins.
Ye are saved from the guilt of all past sin.
There is no condemnation on account of [the believer’s] past sins.
All the sins thou has committed from thy youth up, until the hour when thou wast “accepted in the Beloved,” are driven away as chaff, are gone, are lost.[12]
He will not declare us righteous if we are not actually,
presently living righteously. “Imputation” in Wesley’s mind does not actually
credit us with the righteousness of Christ, but only with forgiveness. He does
say God accepts us, but only to the extent that we live obediently. How can God
accept us if we are not righteous? We must continually earn our justification
with righteousness. Though Wesley repeatedly declares God initially justifies
us by faith and because of nothing in ourselves and nothing we do, he also says
that we do not remain justified without good works. Wesley says that God
condemns us when we doubt his mercy and we must believe and repent again.
If it be said, “But sometimes a believer in Christ may lose his sight of the mercy of God;” I answer, supposing it so to be, supposing him not to see the mercy of God, then he is not a believer: For faith implies light, the light of God shining upon the soul. So far, therefore, as any one loses this light, he, for the time, loses his faith. And, no doubt, a true believer in Christ may lose the light of faith; and so far as this is lost, he may, for a time, fall again into condemnation. But this is not the case of them who now “are in Christ Jesus,” who now believe in his name. For so long as they believe, and walk after the Spirit, neither God condemns them, nor their own heart.[13]
If you doubt, you burn. Any sin condemns you. If you stray
in the least, you perish eternally unless you repent again, and until you
re-repent, you will burn in hell forever. James Arminius himself confirms this.
The regenerate are capable of grieving the Holy Spirit by their sins, so that, for a season, until they suffer themselves to be brought back to repentance, he does not exert his power and efficacy in them … If David had died in the very moment in which he had sinned against Uriah by adultery and murder, he would have been condemned to death eternal.[14]
Finney confirms this as well: “Present, full, and entire
consecration of heart and life to God and his service is an unalterable
condition of present pardon of past sin, and of present acceptance with God.”[15] Wesley’s
justification is nearly identical to the Mosaic covenant and certainly
identical to the Catholic doctrine of grace and works. In the Old Testament,
the priests made daily sacrifices to atone for the sins of the people (Hebrews
7.27; 10.11). In Wesley’s covenant, we must repent and believe and then when we
sin again, we are condemned again until we repent and believe again. Wesley
substitutes the literal daily sacrifice with the daily sacrifice of repentance
and good works. God does not save us through faith alone but through faith and
works. Only the continuing obedience of the believer will guarantee his
salvation. Otherwise, we perish as if we had never believed.
Antinomianism and Universalism
Finney, like Wesley, despised the reformers’ idea of imputed
righteousness. He refused to believe that one act of faith could attain
“perpetual justification” of Christ’s obedience added to our account. He also
believed that God forgave only our past sins, and that he requires
“perseverance in obedience to the end of life” as a second condition of our
justification.[16] He fervently equated the
Gospel doctrine of justification to the heresy of antinomianism.[17]
If nomos (Greek) denotes law, then
antinomianism is lawlessness. Charles Hodge describes antinomianism as “the
neglect of moral duties.”[18] If
God declares us righteous once and for all, we will clearly descend into
unrestrained lawlessness, for what motivation do we have to live in
righteousness? If all our sins from birth to death are atoned for, why will we
live for Christ? What possible reason do we have to love Christ, to honor him,
to give our lives in sacrificial obedience, if Christ has given his life for
us, if we are absolutely forgiven and have the righteousness of Christ imputed
to our account? Finney and Wesley saw no possible reason for the believer,
after his first act of faith, humble and repentant, to continue in obedience
without the fear of condemnation looming ominously and constantly overhead.
Yet these men did not believe that the Holy Spirit brings men
to Christ. They believed that men chose God of their own will—Wesley believing
in the light of conscience somewhat regenerated, and Finney the unregenerate
natural will—and that men needed nothing further to lead them to Christ than
either knowledge, or desperation, or the faint “wooing of God’s tender love” of
Walls and Dongell that gives up at the slightest resistance. The Holy Spirit
did not change the heart of a man to grant him faith and repentance, so why
would he change the heart of a man to grant him obedience post-justification?
Why would he need to? Arminians believe they have all they need to live for
Christ because they make the crucial initial decision. They are ultimately
righteous in themselves because they ultimately decided for themselves.
Yes, God provides some measure of impetus in the conviction, but men ultimately
decide on their own, of their own will, by whatever spark of faith they muster
themselves. When God “enlightens” two men equally, yet only one chooses to believe,
to whose credit do we assign this belief? Surely not to God, for that denotes
the undesirable notion of unconditional election. God will not unjustly give
one man more faith than another. We must conclude that the believing man only
believed because he in his natural constitution, distinct from the other man,
possessed faith while the other did not. He was more righteous, more repentant,
or more humble—whatever. If this man can choose to believe in God, and had no
true, distinct, radically heart-changing, resurrecting help from the Holy
Spirit, then he can continue to believe and live in obedience with no true help
from the Holy Spirit. If this man knows himself to be permanently justified,
receiving the righteous obedience of Christ to his account, yet having no true
help, no real change of heart by the power of God, then he will obviously fall
into sin. He needs the constant threat of eternal wrath in order to motivate
him to righteousness.
Wiley echoes a similar sentiment, while unwittingly adding subtle
tendencies to universalism in his doctrine of justification. This “penal
satisfaction theory,” as it is known, “leads logically into antinomianism…If
Christ’s active obedience is to be substituted for that of believers, it shuts
out the necessity of personal obedience to the law of God.”[19] We
do not obey because we need to secure salvation, however. John said we obey
because God loves us (1 John 4.19). We obey in order to glorify God (1
Corinthians 10.31; 1 Peter 4.11). Paul served God because the love of Christ
compelled him, not by any need to secure righteousness in order to appease God
(2 Corinthians 5:14, 15). Our works do not justify us therefore God does not
require them of us to secure our salvation (Romans 3.24; Ephesians 2.8). Our
obedience proves our salvation but it does not provide it (James 2.14-26;
Galatians 5.22-23; Matthew 7.20).
While Wiley does not believe that any believer receives Christ’s
righteousness, he believes that everyone receives forgiveness. As I mentioned
earlier, Wiley believes that Christ’s death secured justification for all
mankind. He quotes Thomas Summers, who says, “The atonement is the satisfaction
made to God for the sins of all mankind, original and actual.”[20] He then
quotes William Pope who says that the atonement is the satisfaction “of the
divine displeasure against the world, and therefore the sin of the world is no
longer a bar to acceptance.”[21]
Though Wesleyans believe that sinners only benefit from the atonement if they
believe, Wiley later tells us that
The atonement is universal. This does not mean that all mankind will be unconditionally saved, but that the sacrificial offering of Christ so far satisfied the claims of the divine law as to make salvation a possibility for all.[22]
Of course, Wiley clarifies that this salvation remains
conditional in its application, but elsewhere he describes “an unconditional
diffusion of grace to all men” as reconciliation for the entire world.[23] To
clarify, God needed to give us this gift of reconciliation—not Christ’s
righteousness, because he will not, or forgiveness, because this requires
faith—in order to allow us to live and propagate after Adam’s sin.
Had not the intervention of the Second Adam been foreseen, universally making and constituting righteous all who were made and constituted sinners, Adam would never have been permitted to propagate his species, and the race would have been cut off in its sinning head.[24]
God forgave everyone immediately after Adam’s sin so that he
would not immediately destroy Adam. Where does scripture teach this? Wesleyan
theology teaches that believers do not receive the righteousness of Christ, but
every human in creation is righteous, while all do not believe. Men must still
believe in order to be forgiven. I am as confused as you are. While Wiley
denies universalism, that God saves all regardless of individual faith or
repentance, he believes that all are righteous and none are condemned, or
something like that.[25]
Righteousness and Forgiveness
To God we owe everything. There is nothing that we have that
did not originate from him. He created the universe; he gives us strength and
breath and “every good thing.” Every minute of our lives, we owe him every
ounce of strength, wealth, time, thought and resource that belongs to us. Only
to him do we owe this kind of devotion and when we do not devote every bit of
ourselves to him, we sin. If we sin, we owe God a debt of life, while still we
owe this devotion of righteousness. If God only forgives us, at best we enjoy a
neutral state before him. He does not condemn us, but neither does he accept
us. Because of Adam, we could never have paid both parts of this debt. This is
the debt we owe to God and Christ paid it for us. He was the only one who
could. Christ paid the debt of death and obedience. If Christ paid it, then it
is completely paid and we owe nothing to God regarding this debt. If God chose
us and loves only us, then Christ paid for only those whom he loves, but if he
paid it for all, then all are saved. Watson tells us
[Justification] is an act of God’s free grace, whereby he pardons all our sins, and accepts us as righteous in his sight, only for the righteousness of Christ, imputed to us, and received by faith alone.[26]
Calvin believed that the Mosaic Law had two purposes: to
reveal the devotion and honor we owe God but also to help us “rid ourselves of
any illusions about our own strength and abandon all trust in our own
righteousness.”[27] Pride and ambition puffs us
up, while self-love blinds us that we cannot learn humility or admit our misery
apart from God. God is entitled to glory, reverence, love and fear. “The truest
honor we can do him is to practice righteousness, holiness, and purity,” he
says. He continues, “Our crude powers of understanding and our gross arrogance
made it necessary for the Lord to hand down to us his written law.”[28] If
the Law explains how we obey God, then our failure to obey becomes a legal debt,
and consequently, justification must involve a legal payment.
Wesleyans commonly object to this “penal satisfaction,” as
it logically leads to either heretical or Calvinist ideas. “The Penal
substitutionary theory leads of necessity, either to universalism on the one
hand, or unconditional election on the other,” says Wiley.[29] He
continues
Such an atonement cancels all punitive claims against the elect, and by immediate result frees them from all guilt as a liability to the penalty of sin… If the claims of justice are satisfied, they cannot again be enforced.[30]
The Wesleyan tells us that God indeed does perpetually
justify us. As Paul says, “Therefore there is now no condemnation for those who
are in Christ Jesus” (Romans 8.1). Wiley describes another Calvinist conclusion
from this justification.
If Christ died for all men, then all are unconditionally saved as universalism maintains. If all are not saved, as the Scriptures clearly teach, then the only alternative is a belief in the atonement as limited to the elect.[31]
Christ paid the debt, not for an unnamed, nonspecific group
of anonymous people who may or may not ever believe in him, but for a specific
group of elect individuals that God himself chose and whom he guarantees will
believe because he will bring them to salvation. Wiley objects to this kind of
justification because it leads to either blatant heresy (universalism) or
Calvinism. He says, “The Scriptures declare that Christ died for all,”[32] but
close investigation reveals in every instance where the epistles say “Christ
died for all,” that Paul and Peter speak of Christ dying for his church. After
all, the epistles were written to the church and not to the world at large.
For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all will be made alive.
One died for all, therefore all died.
For Christ also died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust, so that He might bring us to God.[33]
Arminians like to insert “may” into these verses, turning
them into hypothetical possibilities.
For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all may be made alive.
They also change “us” to “every person in Creation,” turning
them into universal statements, while simultaneously trying to avoid
universalism.
For Christ also died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust, so that He might bring everyone to God.
As the self-proclaimed apostle to the Gentiles (Acts 13.46;
Ephesians 3.1), Paul frequently mentions “Jews and Gentiles” in his writings
(Romans 3.29; 9.24) or “Jews and Greeks” (Romans 3.9; 1 Corinthians 1.24), and
when he says “all,” he means both groups, not necessarily every person ever
born. God saves Jews and Gentiles alike. We see this in Acts as well (Acts 10;
11.18; 13.44-49). Otherwise, how do we interpret, “One died for all,” or “All
will be made alive”? Arminians must interpret these to teach universalism if
they want to be consistent.
Solid scriptural exegesis reveals that to justify is
to declare someone righteous. Since Christ paid our penalty, God declares us
righteous—justified under the Law. Erickson says, “A righteous man is one who
has been declared by a judge to be free from guilt. The task of the judge is to
condemn the guilty and acquit the innocent (Deuteronomy 25.1).”[34] God
is our Judge (Psalm 9.4; Jeremiah 11.20). The New Testament speaks of men justifying
God,[35] so
obviously justify must mean something other than forgiveness. Paul uses justify
in the same sense multiple times in his epistles (Romans 3.20, 26, 28; 5.1;
8.30; 10.4, 10; Galatians 2.16; 3.24).[36] Erickson
lays out the evidence for declarative justification:
1.
Righteousness is a matter
of formal standing before the Law and a judge.
2.
Paul’s juxtaposition of justify
and condemn (Romans 8.33-34) along with Christ’s similar usage in
Matthew 12.37: “By your words you will be justified, and by your words you will
be condemned.” No one argues against scripture using condemn as a
declarative term.
3.
Multiple passages where justify
means “to defend, vindicate, or acknowledge to be right,” as in Luke 7.29
and Romans 3.4.
Compare the evidence for the Calvinist view to that for the
Arminian view. The biblical evidence clearly proves that God forever justifies
a specific people, chosen by him, who only believe because he has chosen them. Arminians
reject this on weak scriptural grounds because they want God to save a random
group of nonspecific people, undetermined by him but by them. God cannot be
just if he elects some and excludes others so they prefer to elect themselves.
They refuse to believe that this is impossible. Once God potentially justifies
them, they also prefer to complete their justification themselves.
God declares us righteous because he imputes Christ’s
righteousness to us. Grudem says that “God thinks of Christ’s
righteousness as belonging to us. He ‘reckons’ it to our account.”[38] The
New American Standard Bible translates this as “credits” in Romans 4. The Greek
word means “to count, collect, reckon, calculate” and “implies an activity of
the reason that, starting with ascertainable facts, draws a conclusion, especially
a mathematical one or one pertaining to business.”[39] In a
sense, we have an account before God and he credits our account with the
righteousness of Christ. Though we did nothing to earn this righteousness, it
genuinely and permanently belongs to us on the basis of our faith in Christ. As
Thomas Watson says, “Justification is inamissibilis; it is a fixed
permanent thing. It can never be lost.”[40]
Abraham believed God, and it was credited as righteousness.
To the one who believes in him who justifies the ungodly, his faith is credited as righteousness.
David also speaks of the blessing on the man to whom God credits righteousness apart from works.
Faith was credited to Abraham as righteousness.
It is by faith, in order that it may be in accordance with grace.
With respect to the promise of God, he did not waiver in unbelief but grew strong in faith, giving glory to God, and being fully assured that what God had promised, he was also able to perform. Therefore it was also credited to him as righteousness.[41]
Paul tells the church of Ephesus that they “are saved by
grace through faith, and that not of [themselves], it is the gift of God; not
as a result of works, that no one may boast” (Ephesians 2.8-9). God saves us
through faith in order that he be glorified and not us. We do not work to earn
our salvation and we do not work to keep it. God forever saves us by grace
through faith because of Christ’s death and obedience.
[1]
Watson, Divinity, 226.
[2]
Wesley, “Justification by Faith,” II.5.
[3]
Wesley, “Justification by Faith,” II.5; “The Righteousness of Faith,” I.10.
[4]
Wesley, “Salvation by Faith,” II.2-4, emphasis added.
[5]
Wesley, “The First Fruits of the Spirit,” II.1, 4.
[6]
Wesley, “Salvation,” II.6.
[7]
Wesley, “Fruits,” II.4.
[8]
Wesley, “Justification,” II.1.
[9] Ibid,
II.4.
[10]
Wesley, “Justification,” IV.5.
[11]
Ibid, II.5.
[12]
Wesley, “Salvation by Faith,” II.3; “Fruits,” II.1, III.3.
[13]
Wesley, “Fruits,” III.3.
[14]
James Arminius, The Writings of James Arminius: Volume Two, translated
by James Nichols, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1956), page 502. How does
anyone bring themselves back to repentance without the efficacy of the Holy
Spirit? Our own inherent faith. Then why did we fall away in the first place?
Are we sinners or not?
[15]
Finney, 369.
[16]
Ibid, 367.
[17]
Ibid, 371-372.
[18]
Hodge, Systematic Theology: Volume III, page 241.
[19]
Wiley, Christian Theology: Volume II, page 248-249.
[20]
Ibid, 271.
[21]
Ibid, 272.
[22]
Ibid, 298.
[23]
Ibid, 130, with footnote.
[24]
Ibid, 132, quoting Summers.
[25]
Ibid, 132. Incidentally, Roger Olson, not a universalist, wishes universalism
were true. “I do not embrace it myself except as a hope,” he says. Other
Arminians, most notably Clark Pinnock, also express veiled nods to
universalism. Quoted from https://www.patheos.com/blogs/rogereolson/2019/09/what-if-universalism-were-true-a-question-for-evangelical-christians-especially/
[26]
Watson, 226.
[27]
Calvin, 109.
[28]
Ibid, 110.
[29]
Wiley, Theology: Volume II, 246.
[30]
Ibid, 247.
[31]
Ibid. Finney agrees with this conclusion: “If Christ suffered for them the full
amount deserved by them, then justice has no claim upon them. And since it is
undeniable that the atonement was made for the whole posterity of Adam, it must
follow that the salvation of all men is secured” (Finney, 374). If Christ paid
our debt, then either all are saved or only the elect.
[32]
Ibid.
[33] 1
Corinthians 15.22; 2 Corinthians 5.14; 1 Peter 3.18.
[34]
Erickson, 955.
[35] Luke
7.29, a literal translation from the New King James Version. Most modern
translations read as some form of “declared God just” or “agreed that God’s way
was right.”
[36]
Grudem, 723.
[37]
Erickson, 957.
[38]
Grudem, 726.
[39]
Verlyn D. Verbrugge, Editor, New International Dictionary of Theology: Abridged
Edition, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), page 338.
[40]
Watson, 229.
[41]
Romans 4.3, 5, 6, 9, 16, 20-22.
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